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What Are Iodine Tablets Used For

Written By Thursday, September 22, 2022 Add Comment Edit

This is a fact canvass intended for health professionals. For a reader-friendly overview of Iodine, see our consumer fact canvass on Iodine.

Introduction

Iodine is a trace element that is naturally present in some foods, is added to some types of table salt, and is available equally a dietary supplement. Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroid hormones regulate many important biochemical reactions, including protein synthesis and enzymatic activity, and are critical determinants of metabolic activity [i,2]. They are as well required for proper skeletal and key nervous organization development in fetuses and infants [1].

Thyroid part is primarily regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), also known every bit thyrotropin. It is secreted by the pituitary gland to control thyroid hormone production and secretion, thereby protecting the body from hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism [1]. TSH secretion increases thyroidal uptake of iodine and stimulates the synthesis and release of T3 and T4. In the absence of sufficient iodine, TSH levels remain elevated, leading to goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland that reflects the body's attempt to trap more iodine from the circulation and produce thyroid hormones. Iodine may have other physiological functions in the body as well. For case, it appears to play a role in immune response and might have a beneficial consequence on mammary dysplasia and fibrocystic breast affliction [ii].

The earth's soils incorporate varying amounts of iodine, which in turn affects the iodine content of crops. In some regions of the world, iodine-deficient soils are common, increasing the risk of iodine deficiency amidst people who eat foods primarily from those areas. Salt iodization programs, which many countries accept implemented, accept dramatically reduced the prevalence of iodine deficiency worldwide [2,three].

Iodine in food and iodized salt is nowadays in several chemical forms including sodium and potassium salts, inorganic iodine (I2), iodate, and iodide, the reduced form of iodine [4]. Iodine rarely occurs as the element, merely rather as a salt; for this reason, it is referred to equally iodide and not iodine. Iodide is quickly and almost completely captivated in the tum and duodenum. Iodate is reduced in the alimentary canal and absorbed as iodide [2,5]. When iodide enters the apportionment, the thyroid gland concentrates information technology in advisable amounts for thyroid hormone synthesis and most of the remaining corporeality is excreted in the urine [2]. The iodine-replete healthy adult has about fifteen–20 mg of iodine, 70%–80% of which is independent in the thyroid [6].

Median urinary iodine concentrations of 100–199 mcg/50 in children and adults, 150–249 mcg/Fifty in pregnant women and >100 mcg/L in lactating women bespeak iodine intakes are acceptable [three]. Values lower than 100 mcg/Fifty in children and not-pregnant adults indicate insufficient iodine intake, although iodine deficiency is not classified as severe until urinary iodine levels are lower than twenty mcg/L.

Recommended Intakes

Intake recommendations for iodine and other nutrients are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) adult by the Nutrient and Nutrition Board (FNB) at the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (formerly National Academy of Sciences) [ii]. DRI is the general term for a set up of reference values used for planning and assessing nutrient intakes of healthy people. These values, which vary past age and gender [2], include:

  • Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): Boilerplate daily level of intake sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of almost all (97%–98%) healthy individuals; often used to plan nutritionally adequate diets for individuals.
  • Adequate Intake (AI): Intake at this level is assumed to ensure nutritional adequacy; established when evidence is bereft to develop an RDA.
  • Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): Average daily level of intake estimated to come across the requirements of 50% of good for you individuals; unremarkably used to appraise the nutrient intakes of groups of people and to plan nutritionally adequate diets for them; can also be used to assess the food intakes of individuals.
  • Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): Maximum daily intake unlikely to cause adverse wellness effects.

Tabular array 1 lists the current RDAs for iodine [2]. For infants from nativity to 12 months, the FNB established an AI for iodine that is equivalent to the mean intake of iodine in healthy, breastfed infants in the U.s.a..

Table ane: Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for Iodine [two]
Age Male person Female Pregnancy Lactation
Birth to 6 months 110 mcg* 110 mcg*
7–12 months 130 mcg* 130 mcg*
1–3 years ninety mcg 90 mcg
4–8 years 90 mcg 90 mcg
ix–13 years 120 mcg 120 mcg
14–18 years 150 mcg 150 mcg 220 mcg 290 mcg
19+ years 150 mcg 150 mcg 220 mcg 290 mcg

* Adequate Intake (AI)

The World Health Organisation (WHO), United nations Children'due south Fund (UNICEF), and the International Quango for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders (ICCIDD) recommend a slightly college iodine intake for significant women of 250 mcg per day [3,vii].

Sources of Iodine

Food
Seaweed (such as kelp, nori, kombu, and wakame) is i of the best nutrient sources of iodine [5]. Other good sources include fish and other seafood, as well as eggs (come across Table 2). Iodine is also nowadays in human breast milk [ii,v] and infant formulas [eight].

Dairy products contain iodine. All the same, the amount of iodine in dairy products varies by whether the cows received iodine feed supplements and whether iodophor sanitizing agents were used to clean the cows and milk-processing equipment [9]. For example, an assay of 44 samples of nonfat milk found a range of 38 to 159 mcg per cup (with an boilerplate of 85 mcg/loving cup used for Table two) [8]. Found-based beverages used every bit milk substitutes, such as soy and almond beverages, incorporate relatively small amounts of iodine.

Most commercially prepared bread contains very little iodine unless the manufacturer has used potassium iodate or calcium iodate equally a dough conditioner [10,11]. Manufacturers list dough conditioners equally an ingredient on product labels but are not required to include iodine on the Nutrition Facts label [12], even though these conditioners provide a substantial amount of iodine. According to 2019 data from the USDA Branded Food Products Database, approximately 20% of ingredient labels for white bread, whole-wheat bread, hamburger buns, and hot dog buns listed iodate [13]. Pasta is not a source of iodine unless it is prepared in h2o containing iodized table salt because it absorbs some of the iodine [11].

Most fruits and vegetables are poor sources of iodine, and the amounts they contain are afflicted by the iodine content of the soil, fertilizer use, and irrigation practices [2,10]. This variability affects the iodine content of meat and animal products considering of its impact on the iodine content of foods that the animals swallow [xiv]. The iodine amounts in different seaweed species also vary greatly. For example, commercially available seaweeds in whole or canvas form have iodine concentrations ranging from 16 mcg/1000 to 2,984 mcg/g [15]. For these reasons, the values for the foods listed in Table two are approximate but can be used as a guide for estimating iodine intakes.

Table 2: Iodine Content of Selected Foods [8]
Food Micrograms (mcg)
per serving		 Percent DV*
Breadstuff, white, enriched, fabricated with iodate dough conditioner, 2 slices** 320 213
Bread, whole-wheat, made with iodate dough conditioner, 2 slices** 309 206
Cod, broiled, three ounces 158 106
Seaweed, nori, dried, two tablespoons, flaked (v 1000) 116 77
Oysters, cooked, 3 ounces 93 62
Yogurt, Greek, plain, nonfat, ¾ cup 87 58
Milk, nonfat, 1 cup 85 57
Iodized table salt, ¼ teaspoon 76 51
Fish sticks, cooked, iii ounces 58 39
Pasta, enriched, boiled in water with iodized salt, 1 cup 38 25
Water ice cream, chocolate, ⅔ cup 28 19
Egg, hard boiled, i large 26 17
Cheese, cheddar, 1 ounce xv 10
Liver, beef, cooked, three ounces 14 ix
Shrimp, cooked, 3 ounces 13 9
Tuna, canned in h2o, tuckered, 3 ounces 7 5
Fruit cocktail in light syrup, canned, ½ cup half-dozen iv
Fish sauce, 1 tablespoon 4 iii
Beef, chuck, roasted, 3 ounces iii 2
Soy beverage, 1 cup ii one
Chicken chest, roasted, 3 ounces ii i
Apple tree juice, 1 cup one 1
Staff of life, whole-wheat, made without iodate dough conditioner, 2 slices** 1 1
Bread, white, enriched, made without iodate dough conditioner, two slices** 1 i
Rice, brown, cooked, ¾ cup 1 1
Sea table salt, non-iodized, ¼ teaspoon <1 <1
Corn, canned, ½ cup 0 0
Broccoli, boiled, ½ cup 0 0
Assistant, 1 large 0 0
Soy sauce, 1 tablespoon 0 0
Lima beans, boiled, ½ cup 0 0
Dark-green peas, frozen, boiled, ½ cup 0 0
Pasta, enriched, boiled in water without iodized common salt, i cup 0 0

*DV = Daily Value. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) developed DVs to help consumers compare the food contents of foods and dietary supplements within the context of a total diet. The DV for iodine is 150 mcg for adults and children anile 4 years and older [12]. FDA does not require food labels to list iodine content unless iodine has been added to the food. Foods providing xx% or more of the DV are considered to be high sources of a food, but foods providing lower percentages of the DV also contribute to a healthful diet.
**About 20% of bread products in the United States listing iodate dough conditioners on their labels. Products made without these conditioners contain very niggling iodine.

The U.Southward. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FDA and ODS-NIH Database for the Iodine Content of Common Foodsexternal link disclaimer [8] lists the iodine content of numerous foods and beverages.

Iodized Salt

The Usa, Canada, and dozens of other countries have common salt-iodization programs [3,16,17]. In the Us, salt manufacturers take been adding iodine to table salt since the 1920s, although this practise is still voluntary [18]. The FDA has approved the employ of potassium iodide and cuprous iodide for salt iodization [19], whereas the WHO recommends the apply of potassium iodate due to its greater stability, particularly in warm, clammy, or tropical climates [3]. According to its label, iodized salt in the United States contains 45 mcg iodine/g salt (betwixt 1/eight and 1/4 teaspoon); measured table salt samples take an average of 47.5–l.seven mcg iodine/g salt [8,18]. However, virtually common salt intake in the The states comes from candy foods, and food manufacturers virtually always employ non-iodized salt in these foods. If they do use iodized salt, they must listing the salt every bit iodized in the ingredient list on the food label [9]. Specialty salts, such as ocean salt, kosher table salt, Himalayan table salt, and fleur de sel, are not usually iodized. Production labels volition signal if the salt is "iodized" or provides iodide. As shown in Table two, non-iodized ocean table salt provides virtually no iodine [8].

Dietary supplements

In dietary supplements, iodine is often present every bit potassium iodide or sodium iodide [20]. Supplements containing kelp, a seaweed that contains iodine, are likewise available. A small written report found that people blot potassium iodide almost completely (96.4%) [21].

Many multivitamin/mineral supplements contain iodine, often at a dose of 150 mcg [twenty], and some, but not all, prenatal supplements incorporate iodine [22]. Dietary supplements containing only iodine are besides bachelor, and many contain high doses, sometimes above the UL [20]. Many dietary supplements that contain iodine are listed in the Dietary Supplement Label Database from the National Institutes of Health [xx]. This database contains label information from tens of thousands of dietary supplement products on the U.Southward. market.

Iodine Intakes and Condition

Iodine Intakes

The Full Diet Written report (TDS), an FDA monitoring programme, provides estimated iodine intakes of the U.South. population [23]. Through the TDS program, foods that represent the average U.S. diet are purchased and analyzed for several components, including iodine. Based on belittling results from TDS nutrient samples collected between 2008 and 2012, combined with food consumption estimates, the boilerplate daily iodine intake in the United states of america was 216 mcg/day, with a range from 141 to 296 mcg/day across all age and gender groups [24]. These intakes see or exceed the EAR for all groups.

TDS data do not include iodine that people obtain from the discretionary use of iodized salt [25,26]. Because many U.S. households apply iodized salt, TDS data probable underestimate the truthful iodine intake of near U.South. residents. Information from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) collected between 1999 and 2004 bespeak that 28–29% of adults use iodine-containing dietary supplements [27]; this utilise also adds to the population'southward total iodine intake.

Iodine status of the general U.S. population

Iodine status is typically assessed using urinary iodine measurements. Urinary iodine reflects dietary iodine intake direct because people excrete more than 90% of dietary iodine in the urine [iv]. Spot urine iodine measurements are a useful indicator of iodine condition within populations [28,29]. Notwithstanding, multiple 24-hour urinary iodine or multiple spot urine measurements are more accurate for individuals [4,thirty].

Median urinary iodine concentrations, from spot samples nerveless equally office of a big survey, tin can be used to narrate the iodine status of populations [31]. However, because spot samples are not a suitable indicator of individual iodine condition [30], these measurements cannot be used to diagnose individual cases of iodine deficiency nor to place the proportion of a population with iodine deficiency or with excessive iodine intakes [31]. For a population of school-aged children or non-meaning adults to be iodine sufficient, median urinary iodine concentrations should be greater than 100 mcg/Fifty and no more than than twenty% of the population should take values lower than 50 mcg/L [three].

Urinary iodine measurements from NHANES have been used since 1971 to monitor the iodine status of the U.S. population [32]. Since the inception of the NHANES monitoring program, urinary iodine measurements have shown that the full general U.S. population is iodine sufficient. This is despite the fact that urinary iodine levels decreased by more than fifty% between 1971–1974 and 1988–1994 [two,33]. Much of this decline was a result of decreased levels of iodine in milk due to the reduced use of iodine-containing feed supplements and iodophor sanitizing agents in the dairy industry [34], besides as the reduced use of iodate dough conditioners by commercial bakers. The utilize of erythrosine, an iodine-containing nutrient dye unremarkably used in fruit-flavored breakfast cereals, also decreased during this fourth dimension [34], though it is unclear to what extent this alter actually afflicted urinary iodine levels because the bioavailability of iodine from erythrosine has been found to be low [35]. This sharp decline in urinary iodine levels caused some concern during the late 1990s that the iodine sufficiency of the U.South. population could be at chance if this trend continued [33].

More recent NHANES measurements betoken that urinary iodine levels have stabilized in the full general U.Due south. population. During 2007–2008, NHANES participants aged 6 years and older had a median urinary iodine concentration of 164 mcg/L [36]. Among women of reproductive age, the median urinary iodine concentration in NHANES 2007–2014 was 119 mcg/Fifty [37]. These values have essentially remained unchanged in the final three NHANES surveys, indicating that the dietary iodine intake of the general U.S. population has remained stable since 2000 [36].

Iodine Status of U.S. Meaning Women

According to the WHO, a median urinary iodine concentration of 150–249 mcg/L indicates adequate iodine nutrition during pregnancy, while values less than 150 mcg/L are considered insufficient [iii,7]. Analyses of NHANES datasets from 2003 to 2014 indicate that a substantial portion of meaning women in the United States are iodine insufficient. Median urinary iodine concentrations for pregnant women participating in NHANES surveys were 181 mcg/L in 2003–2004, 153 mcg/Fifty in 2001–2006, 125 mcg/L in 2005–2008, and 144 mcg/Fifty in 2007–2014 [32,36-38]. Suboptimal iodine condition during pregnancy has also been observed in Australia [39].

Pregnant women who practice non consume dairy products may be particularly at risk of iodine insufficiency. According to NHANES 2001–2006 information, meaning women who consumed no dairy products in the previous 24 hours had a median urinary iodine concentration of only 100 mcg/L, compared with 163 mcg/Fifty among consumers of dairy [38]. Women who restrict their dietary common salt intake also have lower urinary iodine concentrations and might be more likely to be iodine scarce than women who don't restrict salt intake [twoscore].

Overall, it appears that the general U.Southward. population has acceptable iodine intake but that some significant women may be at chance for iodine deficiency. Continued national iodine monitoring is needed with more emphasis on population subgroups that are most susceptible to iodine deficiency disorders.

Iodine Deficiency

Iodine deficiency has multiple adverse effects on growth and evolution, and is the most common cause of preventable intellectual disability in the world [41]. Iodine deficiency disorders result from inadequate thyroid hormone production secondary to insufficient iodine [5]. During pregnancy and early infancy, iodine deficiency tin crusade irreversible effects.

Under normal conditions, the trunk tightly controls thyroid hormone concentrations via TSH. Typically, TSH secretion increases when iodine intake falls below about 100 mcg/day [5]. TSH increases thyroidal iodine uptake from the blood and the production of thyroid hormone. Still, very low iodine intakes can reduce thyroid hormone production even in the presence of elevated TSH levels.

If a person'south iodine intake falls below approximately 10–20 mcg/day, hypothyroidism occurs [1], a condition that is often accompanied by goiter. Goiter is usually the earliest clinical sign of iodine deficiency [2]. In significant women, iodine deficiency of this magnitude can crusade major neurodevelopmental deficits and growth retardation in the fetus, as well as miscarriage and stillbirth [5]. Chronic, severe iodine deficiency in utero causes cretinism, a condition characterized by intellectual disability, deafened mutism, motor spasticity, stunted growth, delayed sexual maturation, and other physical and neurological abnormalities [5].

In infants and children, less severe iodine deficiency tin can also cause neurodevelopmental deficits such as somewhat lower-than-average intelligence as measured past IQ [ane,42,43]. Mild to moderate maternal iodine deficiency has also been associated with an increased risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children [44]. In adults, balmy-to-moderate iodine deficiency can cause goiter likewise as impaired mental function and work productivity secondary to hypothyroidism. Chronic iodine deficiency may be associated with an increased risk of the follicular form of thyroid cancer [45].

Groups at Take chances of Iodine Inadequacy

Historically, iodine deficiency was endemic in mountainous regions of the United States and Mexico, and in the and then called "goiter belt" effectually the Groovy Lakes [46]. Cheers to a more national food supply, iodized salt, and other factors, overt iodine deficiency is now uncommon in N America. International efforts since the early 1990s take dramatically reduced the incidence of iodine deficiency worldwide, simply some groups of people are still at take a chance of inadequate iodine intake. Iodine insufficiency remains a public health problem in 25 countries with a total population of almost 683 meg people [47]. The following groups are amid those most likely to have inadequate iodine condition.

People who do not use iodized salt
The use of iodized salt is the most widely used strategy to control iodine deficiency. Currently, most 88% of households worldwide use iodized common salt, but iodine insufficiency is still prevalent in certain regions, especially Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Eastern Europe [47,48].

Significant women
During pregnancy, the RDA for iodine increases from 150 to 220 mcg/day [2]. Surveys bespeak that many pregnant women in the United states of america might consume insufficient amounts of iodine fifty-fifty if they do not have signs or symptoms of overt iodine deficiency [36]. The bear upon, if whatsoever, of this insufficient intake on fetal development is not known.

Vegans and people who eat few or no dairy products, seafood, and eggs
Seafood, eggs, milk, and milk products are among the best sources of iodine. Vegans, people with certain food allergies or lactose intolerance, and others who eat no or minimal amounts of these foods might not obtain sufficient amounts of iodine [49,50].

People living in regions with iodine-deficient soils
Iodine-deficient soils produce crops that take low iodine levels. Mountainous areas (e.g., Himalayas, Alps, and Andes regions) and river valleys prone to flooding (specially in South and Southeast Asia) are among the most iodine-scarce regions in the earth [5]. People living in these areas are at risk of iodine deficiency unless they eat iodized salt or foods produced outside the iodine-deficient area.

People with marginal iodine condition who swallow foods containing goitrogens
Consumption of foods that contain goitrogens, substances that interfere with the uptake of iodine in the thyroid, tin can exacerbate iodine deficiency [2]. Foods high in goitrogens include soy, cassava, and cruciferous vegetables (e.g., cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower). Deficiencies of iron and/or vitamin A may also exist goitrogenic [51]. These issues are of business organization primarily for people living in areas prone to iodine deficiency [6]. For most people, including nearly of the U.Due south. population, who have acceptable iodine intakes and consume a multifariousness of foods, the consumption of reasonable amounts of foods containing goitrogens is not a concern.

Iodine and Health

Due to its important role in fetal and infant development and thyroid hormone product, iodine is a critical food for proper health at all life stages. This section focuses on iv areas of biomedical research examining iodine's function in health and disease: fetal and infant development, cognitive function during childhood, fibrocystic breast disease, and radiation-induced thyroid cancer.

Fetal and infant evolution
Iodine sufficiency during pregnancy is extremely important for proper fetal development. During early on pregnancy, when fetal thyroid gland evolution is incomplete, the fetus depends entirely on maternal T4 and therefore, on maternal iodine intake [52]. Product of T4 increases by approximately 50% during pregnancy [53], requiring a concomitant increase in maternal iodine intake. Sufficient iodine intake subsequently nativity is besides important for proper physical and neurological growth and maturation.

Research suggests that infants are more than sensitive to the effects of iodine deficiency than other age groups, as indicated by changes in their TSH and T4 levels in response to even mild iodine deficiency [54]. Although severe iodine deficiency disorders are uncommon in the The states, balmy-to-moderate iodine insufficiency during pregnancy may subtly affect fetal evolution [4,55-59]. A meta-analysis of six,180 mother-kid pairs from three nativity cohorts in the Netherlands, Spain, and the U.k. found that verbal IQ assessed in children at 1.5 to 8 years of age was lower if their mothers had lower iodine status in their start trimester of pregnancy [43]. To arrange increased iodine needs during pregnancy and lactation, the iodine RDA is 220 mcg/day for significant women and 290 mcg/day for lactating women [two]. Similarly, the WHO recommends 250 mcg/mean solar day during pregnancy and lactation [3].

Despite the importance of iodine for proper fetal development, the effects of iodine supplements during pregnancy on infant and kid neurodevelopment in item are inconclusive. Two randomized clinical trials had a similar report design in which iodine was provided from early pregnancy to delivery (150 or 200 mcg/day iodine as potassium iodide) and assessed kid noesis using the aforementioned tool at ages 1.5 or 2 years [sixty,61]. Iodine supplementation had no result on child cognitive, language, or motor scores [62]. One of these trials also assessed children at historic period five–6 years and continued to find no benefit on child neurodevelopment from the female parent'southward use of iodine [60].

Breast milk contains iodine, although concentrations vary based on maternal iodine levels. Infants who are exclusively breastfed depend on maternal iodine sufficiency for optimal development. In a study of 57 good for you lactating women from the Boston expanse, median breast milk iodine content was 155 mcg/L [63]. Based on reported baby iodine needs and the typical volume of chest milk consumed, the authors calculated that 47% of the women may take been providing their infants breast milk containing insufficient amounts of iodine. During the weaning period, infants not receiving iodine-containing complementary foods may also be at risk of iodine deficiency, even in countries with iodized salt programs [64,65].

To ensure that adequate amounts of iodine are available for proper fetal and infant development, several national and international groups recommend iodine supplementation during pregnancy, lactation, and early childhood. For women living in countries with weak, sporadic, or uneven iodized salt distribution, the WHO recommends iodine supplementation for all women of childbearing age to achieve a full iodine intake of 150 mcg/day. For pregnant and lactating women in these countries, iodine intakes of 250 mcg/twenty-four hour period from both supplements and dietary sources are recommended [3,7]. WHO recommendations for these countries also include breastfeeding through 24 months of historic period, combined with complementary foods fortified with iodine for children between the ages of seven–24 months [vii].

The American Thyroid Association recommends that women who are planning a pregnancy, currently pregnant, or lactating should supplement their nutrition with 150 mcg/solar day iodine in the course of potassium iodide [66]. Similarly, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that women who are pregnant, planning to get pregnant, or lactating take a daily supplement providing at to the lowest degree 150 mcg iodine and apply iodized salt [67].

The use of iodine-containing dietary supplements by meaning and lactating women in the United states appears to be low compared to current recommendations. Of 59 best-selling prenatal multivitamin supplements on the market in 2016–2017, simply 34 independent iodine [22]. The median iodine content was 150 mcg per daily serving, with a range of 25 to 290 mcg; 25 of the 34 provided iodine every bit potassium iodide. Co-ordinate to 2011–2014 NHANES data, 72.two% of meaning woman took whatsoever dietary supplement, but simply 17.8% of them took an iodine-containing product [68]. Among lactating women, 75% took a dietary supplement, only only nineteen% of them took an iodine-containing product.

Results from a 2010 study however, raise some questions as to the safety of widespread iodine supplementation in areas of relative iodine sufficiency. In this cross-sectional report, meaning women living in Spain had a significantly increased take chances of hyperthyrotropinemia (TSH >3 microU/mL) if they consumed iodine supplements in doses ≥200 mcg/day compared with those who consumed doses <100 mcg/mean solar day [69]. These findings suggest that taking higher doses of supplemental iodine during pregnancy could induce thyroid dysfunction in some women and underscore the demand for additional research into the effects on maternal thyroid part of iodine supplementation during pregnancy.

Taken as a whole, these findings indicate that increased public awareness of iodine's importance during pregnancy and lactation is warranted and that further research into the furnishings of iodine supplementation during pregnancy is needed. Many researchers, every bit well equally the American Thyroid Association, stress the importance of continued iodine status monitoring among women of reproductive historic period [1,4,32,38,56,70,71].

Cognitive part during babyhood
The furnishings of severe iodine deficiency on neurological development are well documented. Results from several studies suggest, for instance, that chronic, moderate-to-severe iodine deficiency, particularly in children, reduces IQ by about 12–13.v points [53]. A 2004 Cochrane review concluded that iodine supplementation in children living in areas of iodine deficiency appears to both positively bear upon physical and mental development and subtract bloodshed with only pocket-size and transient agin furnishings [72].

The effects of balmy iodine deficiency during childhood are more difficult to quantify. Some enquiry suggests that mild iodine deficiency is associated with subtle neurodevelopmental deficits and that iodine supplementation might improve cognitive function in mildly iodine-scarce children [52].

In a 2009 randomized, placebo-controlled study, 184 children aged ten–13 years in New Zealand with a median urinary iodine concentration of 63 mcg/L received iodine supplements (150 mcg/day) or placebo for 28 weeks [73]. Iodine supplementation improved iodine status (median urinary iodine concentration after supplementation was 145 mcg/L) and significantly improved measures of perceptual reasoning and overall cognitive score compared with children taking a placebo. These findings advise that correcting mild iodine deficiency in children could meliorate sure components of knowledge. Additional enquiry is required to fully sympathise the furnishings of mild iodine deficiency and iodine supplementation on cognitive office.

Fibrocystic breast disease
Fibrocystic chest disease is a benign status characterized past lumpy, painful breasts and palpable fibrosis. It usually affects women of reproductive age, but it tin can as well occur during menopause, particularly in women taking estrogens [74]. Breast tissue has a high concentration of iodine, particularly during pregnancy and lactation) [iv,75]. Some research suggests that iodine supplementation might be helpful for fibrocystic breast affliction, although a specific machinery of action has non been established [76] and data are limited.

In a double-blind study, researchers randomly assigned 56 women with fibrocystic breast disease to receive daily supplements of iodine (70 to 90 mcg I2/kg body weight) or placebo for 6 months [77]. At treatment completion, 65% of the women receiving iodine reported decreased pain compared with 33% of women in the placebo group. A more than recent randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial had similar findings. In this written report, researchers randomly assigned 111 women (18–50 years of age) with fibrosis and a history of breast hurting to receive tablets containing 0 mcg, 1,500 mcg, iii,000 mcg, or six,000 mcg of iodine per day [76]. After 5 months of handling, women receiving doses of 3,000 or 6,000 mcg iodine had a significant decrease in breast pain, tenderness, and nodularity compared with those receiving placebo or 1,500 mcg iodine. The researchers as well reported a dose-dependent reduction in self-assessed pain. None of the doses was associated with major adverse events or changes in thyroid function examination results.

Although the results of these studies are promising, more research is needed to clarify iodine's office in fibrocystic breast illness. Moreover, the doses used in these studies (approximately ane,500–half-dozen,000 mcg per twenty-four hours) are several times higher than the iodine UL of 1,100 mcg for adults. Doses of this magnitude should only be used under the guidance of a physician [2].

Radiation-induced thyroid cancer
Nuclear accidents tin can release radioactive iodine into the environment, increasing the risk of thyroid cancer in exposed individuals, especially children [78,79]. Thyroidal uptake of radioactive iodine is higher in people with iodine deficiency than in people with iodine sufficiency. For this reason, iodine-scarce individuals take a peculiarly high gamble of developing radiation-induced thyroid cancer when exposed to radioactive iodine.

The FDA has approved potassium iodide equally a thyroid-blocking agent to reduce the risk of thyroid cancer in radiation emergencies involving the release of radioactive iodine [78]. The FDA recommends that exposed people take a daily pharmacological dose (xvi–130 mg potassium iodide, depending on age) until the chance of significant radiation exposure ends [78,79]. Potassium iodide was widely used in Poland following the 1986 Chernobyl accident and childhood thyroid cancer rates did not increase essentially in subsequent years [80]. In areas where iodide prophylaxis was not used, such equally Belarus and Ukraine, where many children were mildly iodine-deficient, the incidence of thyroid cancer sharply increased among children and adolescents [78].

Health Risks from Excessive Iodine

High intakes of iodine tin crusade some of the same symptoms as iodine deficiency—including goiter, elevated TSH levels, and hypothyroidism—because excess iodine in susceptible individuals inhibits thyroid hormone synthesis and thereby increases TSH stimulation, which tin can produce goiter [2,81]. Iodine-induced hyperthyroidism can also consequence from high iodine intakes, including when iodine is administered to care for iodine deficiency. Studies have also shown that excessive iodine intakes cause thyroiditis and thyroid papillary cancer [ii,81]. Cases of acute iodine poisoning are rare and are normally acquired by doses of many grams. Acute poisoning symptoms include burning of the rima oris, pharynx, and stomach; fever; abdominal pain; nausea; vomiting; diarrhea; weak pulse; and coma [two].

Responses to excess iodine and the doses required to cause adverse effects vary [82]. Some people, such as those with autoimmune thyroid disease and iodine deficiency, may experience adverse effects with iodine intakes considered prophylactic for the general population [2,5].

The FNB has established iodine ULs for food and supplement intakes (Table three). In most people, iodine intakes from foods and supplements are unlikely to exceed the UL [2]. Long-term intakes above the UL increase the take a chance of adverse health furnishings. The ULs do not apply to individuals receiving iodine for medical handling, simply such individuals should exist under the care of a doc [two].

Tabular array 3: Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for Iodine [ii]
Age Male Female Pregnancy Lactation
Nativity to 6 months Not possible to establish* Not possible to establish*
7–12 months Non possible to establish* Not possible to found*
1–three years 200 mcg 200 mcg
4–8 years 300 mcg 300 mcg
9–xiii years 600 mcg 600 mcg
14–18 years 900 mcg 900 mcg 900 mcg 900 mcg
xix+ years 1,100 mcg 1,100 mcg 1,100 mcg i,100 mcg

* Formula and food should be the only sources of iodine for infants.

Interactions with Medications

Iodine supplements have the potential to interact with several types of medications. A few examples are provided below. Individuals taking these medications on a regular footing should discuss their iodine intakes with their healthcare providers.

Anti-thyroid medications
Anti-thyroid medications, such every bit methimazole (Tapazole®), are used to care for hyperthyroidism. Taking high doses of iodine with anti-thyroid medications can take an additive event [82] and could cause hypothyroidism.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
ACE inhibitors, such as benazepril (Lotensin®), lisinopril (Prinivil® and Zestril®), and fosinopril (Monopril®), are used primarily to care for high blood pressure. Taking potassium iodide with ACE inhibitors can increase the risk of hyperkalemia (elevated claret levels of potassium) [82].

Potassium-sparing diuretics
Taking potassium iodide with potassium-sparing diuretics, such every bit spironolactone (Aldactone®) and amiloride (Midamor®), can increase the risk of hyperkalemia [82].

Iodine and Healthful Diets

The federal government's 2020–2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans notes that "Considering foods provide an array of nutrients and other components that have benefits for health, nutritional needs should be met primarily through foods. ... In some cases, fortified foods and dietary supplements are useful when information technology is non possible otherwise to meet needs for ane or more nutrients (e.chiliad., during specific life stages such equally pregnancy)."

For more than information about edifice a healthy dietary pattern, refer to the Dietary Guidelines for Americansexternal link disclaimer and the U.S. Department of Agriculture's MyPlate.external link disclaimer

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans describes a healthy dietary pattern every bit one that:

  • Includes a variety of vegetables; fruits; grains (at least half whole grains); fat-free and low-fat milk, yogurt, and cheese; and oils.
    Milk and milk products contain iodine.
  • Includes a diverseness of protein foods such every bit lean meats; poultry; eggs; seafood; beans, peas, and lentils; basics and seeds; and soy products.
    Some fish comprise loftier amounts of iodine. Eggs are also good sources of iodine.
  • Limits foods and beverages higher in added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium.

  • Limits alcoholic beverages.

  • Stays within your daily calorie needs.

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Disclaimer

This fact canvas by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Function of Dietary Supplements (ODS) provides information that should not take the identify of medical advice. Nosotros encourage you to talk to your healthcare providers (doctor, registered dietitian, pharmacist, etc.) about your interest in, questions about, or use of dietary supplements and what may be best for your overall health. Any mention in this publication of a specific product or service, or recommendation from an organization or professional society, does non represent an endorsement by ODS of that product, service, or expert advice.

What Are Iodine Tablets Used For,

Source: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iodine-HealthProfessional/

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